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  • Externalities

    Social costs – or externalities, in the language of standard economics – are harmful effects that are not internalized in the production costs of enterprises. Therefore, market prices do not …

  • Carbon trading

    Launched through the Kyoto protocol in 1997, carbon trading is an approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for reduced emissions of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Carbon trading takes two …

  • Human energy use (endosomatic / exosomatic)

    Ecological economists distinguish (following A. Lotka’s ideas) between ‘endosomatic’ and ‘exosomatic’ use of energy by humans. Inside the body, as food energy, adult humans spend per day between 1,500 and …

  • Virtual water and water footprint

    Humans consume water directly for drinking, cooking and washing, but much more for producing commodities such as food, paper, cotton clothes, etc. The amount of water that is used in …